Social Studies and Life Skills · Chapter 6
Study notes aligned to the official NEB syllabus.
Nepal has one of the longest continuous records of state formation in South Asia. It began with the early tribal confederations of the Kathmandu valley. It grew into the unified kingdom forged in the eighteenth century. The land has passed through several clearly marked phases. Each phase left its mark on politics, economy, religion, art and language. Historians usually divide this long record into three broad periods. These are the ancient period, the medieval period and the modern period. This history matters for a social studies student. It explains how the present federal republic inherited its territory. It explains how it inherited its cultural diversity and many of its lasting institutions.
The ancient period covers the earliest phase of history. It is partly recorded and partly semi-recorded. It comes before the rise of the Malla kings. The main sources for this period are few. They include stone inscriptions (abhilekh) and genealogical chronicles (vamshavali). They also include coins and the accounts of foreign travellers. Written records are thin. So the earliest rulers are known partly through legend and partly through later chronicles. For this reason, the dates for the very earliest dynasties are uncertain. They should be treated with caution.
The chronicles give a traditional sequence of early rulers. It begins with the Gopal (cowherd) and Mahishpal (buffalo-herder) dynasties. They are described as pastoral rulers of the valley. They were followed by the Kirat (Kirant) people. The Kirats were a Mongoloid community. Their rule is remembered as a long and significant era in the valley's history. The Kirats are linked to the spread of settled agriculture. They are also linked to figures named in early religious tradition. One limitation is important. The Gopal and Mahishpal periods rest mainly on legend. The Kirat period is better attested. Yet it still lacks a firm dated framework.
The importance of the ancient period lies in the foundations it laid. The Kathmandu valley emerged as a trade and cultural hub. It sat on the route between the Indian plains and Tibet. The religious mixing of early Hindu and Buddhist traditions began here. A Nepal example is the Swayambhu and Pashupatinath traditions. Both are rooted in this ancient layer of valley culture. Both remain central religious sites today.
The Lichhavi period is the first clearly historical era of Nepal. This is because dated stone inscriptions document it, not legend alone. The Lichhavis rose to power in the Kathmandu valley after the Kirats. They established a stable and prosperous state. Their inscriptions were written in Sanskrit. They give reliable evidence about administration, land grants, religion and trade.
The most famous Lichhavi ruler is Manadeva. He was a powerful and capable king. He is remembered for extending the kingdom. He is also remembered for supporting art and religion. The Changu Narayan inscription is linked to Manadeva. It is regarded as the earliest securely dated inscription in Nepal. It is a cornerstone source for Lichhavi history. Another well-known figure is Anshuvarma. He is remembered as an able administrator who strengthened the state. His period saw flourishing trade between India and Tibet. The Kathmandu valley acted as the middle link. The marriage of the Nepali princess Bhrikuti to the Tibetan king belongs to the tradition of this era. It is credited with carrying Buddhism and Nepali art northward.
The Lichhavi age is called a golden period for art and culture. Stone sculpture reached a high level. So did temple building and water-spout (dhunge dhara) engineering. So did Sanskrit learning. A Nepal example that students can see today is the Changu Narayan temple complex. Many Lichhavi-era stone images and inscriptions are scattered across the valley. They still attract historians and pilgrims.
The medieval period followed the decline of the Lichhavis. It lasted until the eighteenth-century unification. In the Kathmandu valley, the Malla dynasty became the dominant power. Early Malla rule slowly consolidated. Under strong kings such as Jayasthiti Malla, the valley saw important reforms. These reforms were social and administrative. They included the systematic ordering of society and the codification of custom. A later king, Yaksha Malla, is remembered as a strong ruler. His reign marked a high point before the valley fragmented.
The defining feature of the later medieval valley was its division. It split into three independent and often rival kingdoms. These were Kantipur (Kathmandu), Lalitpur (Patan) and Bhaktapur (Bhadgaun). This division arose after the death of Yaksha Malla. His territory was shared among his heirs. The three kingdoms competed in trade, art and prestige. This rivalry encouraged a remarkable burst of temple and palace building. But it also left them politically weak. It made them vulnerable to an outside conqueror.
Outside the valley, the hill regions were organised into many small principalities. Tradition groups them in two sets. One set was the Baise (twenty-two) states of the Karnali region. The other was the Chaubise (twenty-four) states of the Gandaki region. Gorkha was one of these Chaubise principalities. A Nepal example of medieval political fragmentation is the Durbar Squares of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur. These are three separate royal palace complexes. They were built within a short distance of one another. This happened precisely because three competing kings ruled side by side.
Economically, the medieval valley thrived on trans-Himalayan trade. Goods moved between India and Tibet through the valley. Nepali traders and craftsmen profited as middlemen. Agriculture, metalwork and the minting of coins were important. Nepali coins were even used in Tibet during parts of this era. Land revenue supported the kings and the temples.
Socially, the medieval period saw society ordered into occupational and caste groups. This process is linked especially to the reforms of Jayasthiti Malla. The chronicles credit him with regularising social ranks and customs. Religion blended Hindu and Buddhist practice. Daily life was structured by festivals and by the guthi (socio-religious trusts) and other community institutions. The Newar community of the valley developed a rich urban culture of its own during this time.
Culturally, the medieval Malla period is celebrated as the greatest age of Nepali art and architecture. The pagoda-style temple flourished under royal patronage. So did fine wood carving. So did bronze and copper repousse work. So did Paubha scroll painting. A Nepal example is the fifty-five-window palace (Pachpanna Jhyale Durbar) of Bhaktapur. The many tiered temples of the three Durbar Squares are another. They remain among Nepal's most important cultural heritage sites. They are listed as World Heritage.
Beyond the valley, the Baise and Chaubise principalities rose, competed and often fell. They fell through warfare, marriage alliances and shifting loyalties. Each small kingdom had its own ruler, army and revenue system. They frequently fought over land, trade routes and prestige. Some grew relatively strong at different times. These included Palpa, Jumla and Gorkha.
The constant rivalry among these small states had two consequences. First, it kept the hill region politically divided and militarily restless. Second, it created an opportunity. An ambitious ruler could, by disciplined effort, absorb neighbour after neighbour. Gorkha was ruled by the Shah kings. It developed a capable army and a strategic position. This allowed it to begin expanding at the expense of its neighbours.
A Nepal example is the kingdom of Gorkha itself. It was a modest Chaubise state. Its careful military and diplomatic growth under its Shah kings eventually launched the unification of the whole country. So the rise and fall of these many small kingdoms is the immediate background to the modern unified state.
The modern period of Nepali history begins with the unification campaign. It was led by Prithvi Narayan Shah, the king of Gorkha, in the eighteenth century. He saw that the divided valley kingdoms and hill principalities could be absorbed by a determined power. So he built a disciplined army. He controlled the trade routes into the valley. He pursued a patient strategy of encirclement rather than a single quick conquest.
His decisive achievement was the conquest of the three valley kingdoms. These were Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur. This gave the new state its heartland and capital. Kathmandu became the centre of the unified kingdom. Prithvi Narayan Shah is remembered not only as a conqueror but as a thinker. His advice was recorded in the Dibya Upadesh (divine counsel). It set out ideas on self-reliance, defence, trade and the dangers of foreign interference. He famously described Nepal as a yam between two boulders. This means a small state between two large powers. The image still frames how Nepalis think about their geography.
A Nepal example of the modern period's opening is the annual observance associated with Prithvi Narayan Shah. The national pride attached to the unification story continues to shape Nepali identity. It continues to shape the idea of a single nation out of many peoples.
After unification, the Shah state kept expanding. Then it faced the challenge of organising a large and diverse territory. The kingdom grew considerably through further military campaigns. It reached a wide extent. Then conflict with the British East India Company led to the Anglo-Nepal War. The war ended in a treaty that fixed Nepal's borders. The treaty required the loss of some territory. This settlement defined the shape of the country for the modern era.
Internally, real power shifted over time. It moved among the palace, the nobility and powerful families. The most important development was the rise of the Rana family. The Ranas established a hereditary prime ministership after a violent power struggle. They reduced the Shah kings to figureheads for about a century. The Ranas centralised authority. They kept the country largely closed to outside influence. They concentrated wealth and office within their own family. Their rule ended in the mid-twentieth century. A movement restored the monarchy's active role. It opened the way to democratic politics.
A Nepal example of post-unification state power is the series of grand Rana palaces in Kathmandu. They were built in European neoclassical style. They physically express how one family controlled the state's wealth and authority during the Rana century.
In the modern period, the economy remained largely agricultural. Land revenue was the backbone of state finance. Several systems of land tenure shaped who controlled land and income. These included Birta (tax-free grants) and Jagir (land for service). Later came Raikar. Trade with Tibet and India continued. In the twentieth century, roads came. Later, industry and foreign aid slowly modernised the economy.
In law, the great landmark was the first comprehensive legal code. It was the Muluki Ain, introduced in the Rana period. For the first time, it set out written law for the whole country. However, it also entrenched caste-based rules of its time. Legal reform came in later decades. It included the modern civil code (Muluki Samhita). This gradually replaced the older provisions with rights-based law.
In culture and the arts, the modern period blended old valley traditions with new influences. Architecture absorbed European styles in palaces and public buildings. Printing and modern education slowly spread literacy. Nepali language and literature developed as unifying national forces. A Nepal example is the Singha Durbar in Kathmandu. It was a vast Rana-era palace. It was later turned into the central secretariat of government. This shows how modern-period building and administration still serve the state today.